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Analysis of the binding sites of chromium to DNA and protein in vitro and in intact cells
New York University Medical Center, Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
1To whom correspondence should be addressed
Previous studies have examined Cr(III), or CrO4 reduced to Cr(III), binding in vitro to DNA. However, there have been few studies examining chromate binding to DNA in intact cells. Treatment of intact cells with chromate (Na251CrO4) resulted in chromium (Cr) binding to DNA. The binding of Cr to DNA was much more stable when more residual peptide/amino acids were associated with DNA. A substantial portion of the Cr bound to DNA was released by treatment with EDTA, suggesting that trivalent Cr was the major oxidation state of Cr bound to DNA. Cr(III) stimulated the formation of amino acid—DNA and protein—DNA complexes in vitro. Tyrosine and cysteine exhibited the highest activity in being complexed to DNA by Cr(III) in vitro, while histidine, methionine and threonine also exhibited more activity than any other amino acid. Similar results were found in intact cells. The activity of proteins complexed to DNA by trivalent Cr depended upon the content of these reactive amino acids. Thus, bovine serum albumin was more active than actin, which in turn was more active than histories. These and other studies presented suggested that Cr(III) was involved directly in the formation of DNA—protein complexes in intact cells, unlike other metals such as Ni(II), which are thought to form DNA–protein cross-links catalytically and not participate directly in the complex. The majority of trivalent Cr associated with DNA was bound to the phosphate backbone without exhibiting any base specificity. Collectively, these results indicate that trivalent Cr creates DNA protein crosslinks by binding with reactive amino acids (i.e. cysteine, tyrosine or histidine) and linking these to the phosphate backbone of DNA.
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