Carcinogenesis Advance Access originally published online on March 26, 2007
Carcinogenesis 2007 28(7):1526-1532; doi:10.1093/carcin/bgm068
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Gene–environment studies: any advantage over environmental studies?
1 Division of Molecular Genetic Epidemiology, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 580, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
2 Center for Family and Community Medicine, Karolinska Institute, 14183 Huddinge, Sweden
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +49 6221 42 18 05; Fax: +49 6221 42 18 10; Email: j.lorenzo{at}dkfz.de
Gene–environment studies have been motivated by the likely existence of prevalent low-risk genes that interact with common environmental exposures. The present study assessed the statistical advantage of the simultaneous consideration of genes and environment to investigate the effect of environmental risk factors on disease. In particular, we contemplated the possibility that several genes modulate the environmental effect. Environmental exposures, genotypes and phenotypes were simulated according to a wide range of parameter settings. Different models of gene–gene–environment interaction were considered. For each parameter combination, we estimated the probability of detecting the main environmental effect, the power to identify the gene–environment interaction and the frequency of environmentally affected individuals at which environmental and gene–environment studies show the same statistical power. The proportion of cases in the population attributable to the modeled risk factors was also calculated. Our data indicate that environmental exposures with weak effects may account for a significant proportion of the population prevalence of the disease. A general result was that, if the environmental effect was restricted to rare genotypes, the power to detect the gene–environment interaction was higher than the power to identify the main environmental effect. In other words, when few individuals contribute to the overall environmental effect, individual contributions are large and result in easily identifiable gene–environment interactions. Moreover, when multiple genes interacted with the environment, the statistical benefit of gene–environment studies was limited to those studies that included major contributors to the gene–environment interaction. The advantage of gene–environment over plain environmental studies also depends on the inheritance mode of the involved genes, on the study design and, to some extend, on the disease prevalence.
Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio
Received January 2, 2007; revised March 8, 2007; accepted March 16, 2007.